The Roman, Frankish and medieval European accounts are connected. Some intermediate stages are still missing.
The Roman → Frankish link and several Iberian branches were already admitted. They cross browsing bands on the main map, where short arrows continue the paths. This view brings them together.
Dashed: qualified ancestry. Solid: documented replacement. Select a currency for its profile or a connection for its evidence. The drawing shows selected branches, not every descendant. It makes no claim of a fixed Roman-to-Frankish conversion.
The new evidence concerns reckoning itself. That is stronger than the earlier evidence for Offa’s coin models. We admit Frankish ancestry as a qualified synthesis while preserving the warning against a single, precisely dated Offa conversion.
MEC6 identifies Carolingian-derived accounting and its development across the Crown of Aragon. That supports older ancestry for Valencia and Mallorca while leaving their immediate local parents unresolved. Their account values are not collapsed into one currency.
Deliberate coin imitation helps establish transmission, especially alongside retained accounting. It cannot alone distinguish a new account unit from coins made for circulation abroad. Explicit adoption of reckoning can support a qualified branch even without a surviving conversion decree. A later adoption of a defined foreign unit or hard peg belongs in the dated monetary-anchor layer.
Claims about legitimacy need their own evidence. Kurt documents Roman models for Visigothic gold, but discusses several functions rather than one universal motive.
Evidence and research decisions
C2094 · Supported
The Royal Mint Museum explicitly traces English reckoning to the Frankish kingdom. This supports transmission of an account system; it does not date a single founding reform. Hines's four-penny shilling in the 930s and Naismith's account of Offa's Frankish coin models prevent a uniform twelve-penny shilling or an exact Offa conversion from being projected across Anglo-Saxon England.
S1100: The origins of pre-decimal coinage, paragraphs 1–2; distinguish tentative transmission date from William I's later weight consistency; pp.153–155, table 1 and notes 9–11; pp.158–159; pp.76–77 and chronology discussion — Full museum article inspected. Explicit transmission of reckoning, not merely coin design. The museum's tentative seventh-century date and its statement about a William I origin for the pound must not override earlier dated pound-account witnesses or regional Anglo-Saxon shillings already documented here.
S497: The origins of pre-decimal coinage, paragraphs 1–2; distinguish tentative transmission date from William I's later weight consistency; pp.153–155, table 1 and notes 9–11; pp.158–159; pp.76–77 and chronology discussion — Relevant research passages inspected
S521: The origins of pre-decimal coinage, paragraphs 1–2; distinguish tentative transmission date from William I's later weight consistency; pp.153–155, table 1 and notes 9–11; pp.158–159; pp.76–77 and chronology discussion — Full-volume PDF passages inspected
C2095 · Qualified
Todesca proposes Frankish denarii behind some Galician and Astur-Leonese silver reckoning, but presents this as a hypothesis. The name gallicanus, possible French coins and twelve-part accounting do not settle which predecessor unit was inherited. The Visigothic-to-northwestern-Iberian boundary therefore remains open; neither a disconnected origin nor extinction is inferred.
S993: Printed pp. 49–55, especially pp. 50–54: competing readings of gallicanus, silver-account charters, and conditional Frankish-coin hypothesis; Printed pp. 168–170 and 178–180; Roman models, proposed functions, and continued solidus accounting — Printed pp. 49–55 inspected through full PDF. Proposed Frankish circulation is conditional; charter terms and coin discoveries do not by themselves establish a particular account succession.
S1033: Printed pp. 49–55, especially pp. 50–54: competing readings of gallicanus, silver-account charters, and conditional Frankish-coin hypothesis; Printed pp. 168–170 and 178–180; Roman models, proposed functions, and continued solidus accounting — Full PDF inspected at specified passages. Roman imitation is explicit; prestige is discussed alongside fiscal and commercial functions, not established as a single universal motive. Existing solidus-account continuity claim retained.
C2096 · Supported
Kurt identifies Roman gold coinage as the Visigothic starting point and describes close early imitation. He discusses prestige alongside fiscal and other uses. The admitted Roman-to-Visigothic account ancestry rests additionally on continued solidus reckoning; visual imitation is corroboration, and a universal legitimacy motive is not assumed.
S1033: Printed pp. 168–170 and 178–180; Roman models, proposed functions, and continued solidus accounting — Full PDF inspected at specified passages. Roman imitation is explicit; prestige is discussed alongside fiscal and commercial functions, not established as a single universal motive. Existing solidus-account continuity claim retained.
C2097 · Qualified
English penny–pound reckoning has Frankish account ancestry: the Royal Mint Museum explicitly describes transmission of the reckoning system. Admit a qualified, compressed ancestry link, without identifying a single founder, exact adoption date, conversion rate or uniform early shilling. The seventh century through William I is a research envelope, not a dated observation or a claim that transmission lasted this whole period.
S1100: The origins of pre-decimal coinage, paragraphs 1–2; distinguish tentative transmission date from William I's later weight consistency — Full museum article inspected. Explicit transmission of reckoning, not merely coin design. The museum's tentative seventh-century date and its statement about a William I origin for the pound must not override earlier dated pound-account witnesses or regional Anglo-Saxon shillings already documented here.
S497: The origins of pre-decimal coinage, paragraphs 1–2; distinguish tentative transmission date from William I's later weight consistency — Relevant research passages inspected
S521: The origins of pre-decimal coinage, paragraphs 1–2; distinguish tentative transmission date from William I's later weight consistency — Full-volume PDF passages inspected
C2098 · Qualified
Qualified Frankish ancestry of Valencian accounting through the Crown of Catalonia-Aragon: MEC6 identifies Carolingian-derived accounts and their regional diner basis. Intermediates and conversion terms remain open; 800–1300 is a research envelope, not a foundation date.
S1032: Printed pp. 5, 11–13; general Carolingian-derived accounting and Crown of Catalonia-Aragon account standard — Publisher preview inspected, printed pp. 5 and 11–13. The regional synthesis explicitly concerns accounting. Separate chapters on Valencia and Majorca are outside this preview; no immediate local parent or conversion decree is claimed.
C2099 · Qualified
Qualified Frankish ancestry of Mallorcan accounting through the Crown of Catalonia-Aragon: MEC6's account-system synthesis supports the older ancestry. This does not establish Valencia as the immediate parent or turn coin replacement into debt conversion. The 800–1300 research envelope is not a foundation date.
S1032: Printed pp. 5, 11–13; general Carolingian-derived accounting and Crown of Catalonia-Aragon account standard — Publisher preview inspected, printed pp. 5 and 11–13. The regional synthesis explicitly concerns accounting. Separate chapters on Valencia and Majorca are outside this preview; no immediate local parent or conversion decree is claimed.