Research revision 34 · 12 October 2026
Account continuity reconnects the Roman, Frankish and Iberian histories. Shared coin names alone do not carry the argument.
Explore the western tree → · Explore Iberia → · Download revision 34
Our earlier review set too high a bar for inherited account traditions. Spufford and the Hamburg Solidus entry explicitly describe solidus accounting continuing through the switch from gold tremisses to silver deniers. The model now admits a qualified Roman → Frankish regional continuation. Its precise differentiation date is still unresolved.
| Roman term | Western continuation | Meaning for the tree |
|---|---|---|
| Denarius | Denier / penny | Name continuity; the classical silver coin and medieval denier need not share a value or an uninterrupted coin series. |
| Solidus | Sou / shilling | The strongest bridge: continued reckoning across changing coins. |
| Libra | Livre / pound | A weight term and later money-of-account denomination; equal names do not establish equal mass or value across eras. |
Denier corresponds to penny, not shilling. In the familiar Carolingian account system, 12 deniers make a solidus and 20 solidi a libra. These are related denominations, not three separate parent currencies. The new ancestry rests on the inherited account system, not etymology alone. S951 · S1031
The retained solidus–nomisma profile now includes Western imperial obligations from 397 and 410, alongside an Eastern imperial assessment from 375 and its earlier Egyptian and Palestinian evidence. Its ID and regional qualifications are preserved. This avoids claiming that an Egyptian local standard was the Franks’ parent.
Dashed links retain uncertainty about regional differentiation, intermediate stages or chronology. Their date ranges are research envelopes, excluded as account observations. A compressed ancestry link does not make its recipients direct siblings.
Frankish reckoning continues the late-Roman solidus account tradition: solidus reckoning survived the change from gold tremisses to silver deniers. Admit regional ancestry; the exact differentiation date and intermediate local stages remain unresolved.
Qualified ancestry · R-V34-001 · research envelope 400–700Visigothic law and finance retained Roman solidus accounting after local solidus coin production ceased. Admit a regional continuation, with its differentiation chronology unresolved.
Qualified ancestry · R-V34-002 · research envelope 400–681Catalan denier–solidus–libra accounting extends the Carolingian system. Retain the Barcelona branch and qualify the regional separation chronology.
Qualified ancestry · R-V31-002 · research envelope 800–991The regional denier–solidus–libra system has Carolingian ancestry. This compressed ancestry link leaves intervening stages and the immediate parent unresolved; it does not establish direct siblinghood.
Qualified ancestry · R-V34-004 · research envelope 800–1145The regional denier–solidus–libra system has Carolingian ancestry. This compressed ancestry link leaves intervening stages and the immediate parent unresolved; it does not establish direct siblinghood.
Qualified ancestry · R-V34-005 · research envelope 800–1198The regional denier–solidus–libra system has Carolingian ancestry. This compressed ancestry link leaves intervening stages and the immediate parent unresolved; it does not establish direct siblinghood.
Qualified ancestry · R-V34-006 · research envelope 800–1263Castilian maravedí accounting gradually replaced the earlier solidus–dinero system. Admit account replacement with uncertain timing; 1100–1500 is a research envelope, not an observed conversion interval.
Qualified ancestry · R-V34-007 · research envelope 1100–1500Roman bronze/as reckoning is now an earlier epoch within the existing Roman account identity. Crawford describes official reckoning moving from asses to sestertii; the later denarius system related its denominations in asses. Bernard supports a qualified fifth-century BCE account witness from retrospective reports. The map distinguishes that early evidence from the firm 70 BCE literary witness already recorded. No new Greek parent is inferred from coinmaking influence.
S1035 · S1036 · S103716 inherited endpoint codes gain an earlier dated ancestor. These are qualified ancestry paths, not newly certified strict paths. The Roman solidus is now connected to later western histories; the earlier as–denarius profile still lacks a demonstrated transition into solidus accounting. There is therefore no new BCE-to-modern or Lydia-to-modern chain.
| Endpoint | Previous earliest witness | Current earliest witness |
|---|---|---|
| AOA | 1091 | 375 |
| BRL | 1091 | 375 |
| CVE | 1091 | 375 |
| DJF | 675 | 375 |
| EUR | 675 | 375 |
| GNF | 675 | 375 |
| KMF | 675 | 375 |
| MGA | 675 | 375 |
| MRU | 675 | 375 |
| MZN | 1091 | 375 |
| STN | 1091 | 375 |
| UYU | 1091 | 375 |
| VUV | 675 | 375 |
| XAF | 675 | 375 |
| XOF | 675 | 375 |
| XPF | 675 | 375 |
Inspect dated paths and qualifications · Current historical reach
The existing 11 step-parent relationships are unchanged. The Almoravid lead is retained for review, not silently converted into an ancestry edge.
CTh 7.13.7.2, issued at Antioch on 2 June 375, assesses a recruit obligation at 36 solidi, including six for clothing and expenses. This is an Eastern imperial account observation.
Book VII, military obligations
7.13.7.2 (375), 7.13.13 (397), 7.13.20 (410) — Full relevant Latin legal clauses and subscriptions inspected in the hosted edition; no manuscript collation.
CTh 7.13.13, Padua, 24 September 397, allows senators to discharge recruitment obligations by paying 25 solidi per recruit to the treasury. This is a Western imperial account observation.
Book VII, military obligations
7.13.7.2 (375), 7.13.13 (397), 7.13.20 (410) — Full relevant Latin legal clauses and subscriptions inspected in the hosted edition; no manuscript collation.
CTh 7.13.20, Ravenna, 8 February 410, assesses recruits from African and island administrations at 30 solidi. Different recruitment assessments do not imply different account units.
Book VII, military obligations
7.13.7.2 (375), 7.13.13 (397), 7.13.20 (410) — Full relevant Latin legal clauses and subscriptions inspected in the hosted edition; no manuscript collation.
Broaden the retained solidus–nomisma profile to imperial and regional accounting. Western and Eastern imperial obligations support a shared account tradition. Local Egyptian, Palestinian and early Arabic identity associations retain their existing qualifications; this does not assert identical local metal standards.
Book VII, military obligations
7.13.7.2 (375), 7.13.13 (397), 7.13.20 (410); Main text and notes 8–12 — Full relevant Latin legal clauses and subscriptions inspected in the hosted edition; no manuscript collation.
Solidus (2021), Formulae–Litterae–Chartae
7.13.7.2 (375), 7.13.13 (397), 7.13.20 (410); Main text and notes 8–12 — Relevant substantive passage inspected; scholarly synthesis, not independent collation of its underlying documents.
Treat Roman as, denarius and sestertius reckoning as epochs of the retained Roman account profile. Crawford describes official assessments moving from asses to sestertii; the integrated denarius system explicitly related its denominations in asses. Retariffing and denomination changes do not alone create separate currencies.
Roman Republican Coinage II, chapter 6: Roman Units of Reckoning Under the Republic
Publisher opening excerpt; chapter pp. 621–632; Section II, What and when; notes 39–48 — Only the publisher opening excerpt inspected; full chapter was not accessed.
Money and mid-republican Rome, JRS 115 (2025), 221–245
Publisher opening excerpt; chapter pp. 621–632; Section II, What and when; notes 39–48 — Relevant substantive passage inspected; scholarly synthesis, not independent collation of its underlying documents.
Bernard considers reports of fifth-century BCE bronze/as fines and Twelve Tables reckoning credible evidence of early account use. Add a qualified retrospective fifth-century witness, not a surviving contemporary ledger, standardized bronze object or founding date.
The Social History of Early Roman Coinage, JRS 108 (2018), 1–26
Section II, opening paragraphs and notes 36–40 — Relevant substantive passage inspected; scholarly synthesis, not independent collation of its underlying documents.
Todesca argues that denarius replaced argentus in León-Castile notarial vocabulary around 1100 without necessarily introducing a new monetary unit. Extend the existing scoped solidus profile through these denier accounts; earlier regional ancestry remains disputed.
It Touches All: Coinage and Monetary Policy in León-Castile to1230, FordhamPhD1996
pp. 61–63, 178–184, especially 179–180 and notes 40–43 — Relevant substantive passage inspected; scholarly synthesis, not independent collation of its underlying documents.
A San Millán sale of 1086 states 14 silver solidi plus a supplementary 14 denarii. Todesca reproduces the wording and references the charter edition (p. 179, note 40).
It Touches All: Coinage and Monetary Policy in León-Castile to1230, FordhamPhD1996
pp. 61–63, 178–184, especially 179–180 and notes 40–43 — Relevant substantive passage inspected; scholarly synthesis, not independent collation of its underlying documents.
A Sahagún sale of 1102 records two silver solidi plus six denarii as a supplementary payment. Todesca cites a non-cartulary version, perhaps original (p. 180, note 43).
It Touches All: Coinage and Monetary Policy in León-Castile to1230, FordhamPhD1996
pp. 61–63, 178–184, especially 179–180 and notes 40–43 — Relevant substantive passage inspected; scholarly synthesis, not independent collation of its underlying documents.
Visigothic Code VII.6.v imposes compensation of three gold solidi and a judicial payment of one-third solidus for refusing acceptable money. The translation is editorially dated c. 681; that approximate observation is not a currency foundation.
On Coinage, c. 681
VII.6.v; Zeumer edition pp. 309–310 — Modernized English translation and editorial approximate date inspected; not the Latin manuscript.
Frankish reckoning continues the late-Roman solidus account tradition: solidus reckoning survived the change from gold tremisses to silver deniers. Admit regional ancestry; the exact differentiation date and intermediate local stages remain unresolved.
Money and its Use in Medieval Europe, Cambridge University Press
pp. 19, 33–34; Main text and notes 8–12 — Relevant book passages inspected in an OCR mirror; possible OCR errors; not original document collation.
Solidus (2021), Formulae–Litterae–Chartae
pp. 19, 33–34; Main text and notes 8–12 — Relevant substantive passage inspected; scholarly synthesis, not independent collation of its underlying documents.
Visigothic law and finance retained Roman solidus accounting after local solidus coin production ceased. Admit a regional continuation, with its differentiation chronology unresolved.
Visigothic Currency in its Making and Movement (2019)
pp. 168, 178–180, notes 24–31 — Relevant substantive passage inspected; scholarly synthesis, not independent collation of its underlying documents.
Catalan denier–solidus–libra accounting extends the Carolingian system. Retain the Barcelona branch and qualify the regional separation chronology.
Medieval European Coinage, volume 6 (2013)
Printed pp. 6, 11–16; PDF pages 42, 47–52 — Publisher preview PDF, introductory account-system passages inspected; entire volume not inspected.
The regional denier–solidus–libra system has Carolingian ancestry. This compressed ancestry link leaves intervening stages and the immediate parent unresolved; it does not establish direct siblinghood.
Medieval European Coinage, volume 6 (2013)
Printed pp. 6, 11–16; PDF pages 42, 47–52 — Publisher preview PDF, introductory account-system passages inspected; entire volume not inspected.
The regional denier–solidus–libra system has Carolingian ancestry. This compressed ancestry link leaves intervening stages and the immediate parent unresolved; it does not establish direct siblinghood.
Medieval European Coinage, volume 6 (2013)
Printed pp. 6, 11–16; PDF pages 42, 47–52 — Publisher preview PDF, introductory account-system passages inspected; entire volume not inspected.
The regional denier–solidus–libra system has Carolingian ancestry. This compressed ancestry link leaves intervening stages and the immediate parent unresolved; it does not establish direct siblinghood.
Medieval European Coinage, volume 6 (2013)
Printed pp. 6, 11–16; PDF pages 42, 47–52 — Publisher preview PDF, introductory account-system passages inspected; entire volume not inspected.
Castilian maravedí accounting gradually replaced the earlier solidus–dinero system. Admit account replacement with uncertain timing; 1100–1500 is a research envelope, not an observed conversion interval.
Medieval European Coinage, volume 6 (2013)
Printed pp. 6, 11–16; PDF pages 42, 47–52; pp. 61–63, 178–184, especially 179–180 and notes 40–43 — Publisher preview PDF, introductory account-system passages inspected; entire volume not inspected.
It Touches All: Coinage and Monetary Policy in León-Castile to1230, FordhamPhD1996
Printed pp. 6, 11–16; PDF pages 42, 47–52; pp. 61–63, 178–184, especially 179–180 and notes 40–43 — Relevant substantive passage inspected; scholarly synthesis, not independent collation of its underlying documents.
Greek and South Italian influence on Roman coin production does not by itself establish inheritance or deliberate adoption of a foreign account unit. Keep that external parent question open.
The Social History of Early Roman Coinage, JRS 108 (2018), 1–26
Section II, opening paragraphs and notes 36–40; Section II, What and when; notes 39–48 — Relevant substantive passage inspected; scholarly synthesis, not independent collation of its underlying documents.
Money and mid-republican Rome, JRS 115 (2025), 221–245
Section II, opening paragraphs and notes 36–40; Section II, What and when; notes 39–48 — Relevant substantive passage inspected; scholarly synthesis, not independent collation of its underlying documents.
The reviewed evidence does not settle Visigothic-to-Astur-Leonese or Galician account continuity, nor the immediate León-to-Portugal identity boundary. Retain these as unresolved questions, not evidence of unrelated origins.
It Touches All: Coinage and Monetary Policy in León-Castile to1230, FordhamPhD1996
pp. 61–63, 178–184, especially 179–180 and notes 40–43; pp. 168, 178–180, notes 24–31 — Relevant substantive passage inspected; scholarly synthesis, not independent collation of its underlying documents.
Visigothic Currency in its Making and Movement (2019)
pp. 61–63, 178–184, especially 179–180 and notes 40–43; pp. 168, 178–180, notes 24–31 — Relevant substantive passage inspected; scholarly synthesis, not independent collation of its underlying documents.
The maravedí adopted an Almoravid gold standard. Retain a candidate unit-adoption relationship pending a properly scoped Almoravid account profile and temporal assessment.
Medieval European Coinage, volume 6 (2013)
Printed pp. 6, 11–16; PDF pages 42, 47–52 — Publisher preview PDF, introductory account-system passages inspected; entire volume not inspected.
Earlier evidence, identifiers, aliases and release archives remain available. Automated data, chronology, kinship, layout and interaction checks accompany this revision; static render inspection is not browser QA.
Next regional pass: Iranian, Indian and East Asian account trees.